## CRS 325 Fall 2025 Presentational Speaking’s Updates

### Week 2 - Chapter 1 and 2

So what is it about public speaking that makes many of us look or feel like the woman in the image above? Black (2020) tells us that up to 75 percent of all of us are believed to be suffering from glossophobia, or the fear of public speaking. With 3 out of 4 of us basically freaked out over the possibility of appearing in front of others and actually saying something, I guess you could say this is a major issue.

That said, I imagine that even with lower percentages expected in an upper-level Communication and Rhetorical Studies course, there's a good chance there are still some of us who feel anxiety on some level from the thought of public speaking. The first thing I want to say about that is...that's actually good. There should be a certain amount of natural anxiety that's built into everything we do that has some significance or importance attached to it. If we aren't at least a little bit anxious about what we are about to do, it probably isn't that important to us. And if it's not important to us, why are we doing this?

Reprinted from "Make public speaking your super power in the new year: Tips for managing speaking anxiety", by Abrahams, M. (2019, January 15). Retrieved from https://www.nofreakingspeaking.com/make-public-speaking-your-super-power-in-the-new-year-tips-for-managing-speaking-anxiety/

This course will provide a lot of good information about public speaking as well as a lot of tips and tools to become good, and hopefully better, public speakers. One thing this class cannot do is actually teach anyone how to be a public speaker. That part has to be done by the student. What do I mean by that? None of what we are doing in class will be of any use if the information and tips and tools aren't applied in a practical way by practicing to speak. There will be a lot of activities throughout this course that will involve either recording some kind of speech or performing one during class. What will happen by doing these activities? Better grades (!) and greater confidence by way of improving public speaking skills. In other words, the only way to be a better public speaker is to be a better public speaker. If everyone does their part here, I can pretty much guarantee it will happen.

Here are the activities in Week 2 that are available and/or suggested that you complete:

- Achieve - Complete the LearningCurve quizzes for textbook Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 (You may need to log into Blackboard to complete these quizzes)
- One community update - You must complete a total of 9 updates over the span of this course. There will be a total of 12 updates possible, which means you can skip any three of the remaining updates over the course.
- Two comments on other community members' updates - You must complete a total of 18 comments on other students' updates over the span of this course.
- One comment on this update - You must create a comment for each of the admin (learning module) updates in the course.

​PART I - BUILD THAT CONFIDENCE!

Media embedded February 14, 2021

RARE FACTS (2017, November 7). I have a dream speech by Martin Luther King Jr. [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/vP4iY1TtS3s

Please take the time to watch the video above if you have not before heard Rev. Martin Luther King's iconic "I Have A Dream" speech delivered in 1963. There have been many great speeches over the years - Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's 1933 inauguration speech, President John F. Kennedy's 1961 inauguration speech to name three - but to me, Rev. King's stirring call to action in front of 250,000 people in Washington, D.C. ranks as among the very best persuasive speeches made. Such speakers have a way of moving us - not just emotionally or even mentally but sometimes physically as well. King was speaking at a crucial time in the nation's struggle for civil rights, which was a euphemism for giving non-whites the same rights as white people. It was a time when black Americans were being jailed, beaten, and killed for their peaceful protest against discrimination. King's exhortation about his "dream" of a better world for the disenfranchised and marginalized of society likely gave many people hope when hope was hard to come by.

Reprinted from "Author says Hitler was 'blitzed' on cocaine and opiates during the war" (2017, March 7). Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2017/03/07/518986612/author-says-hitler-was-blitzed-on-cocaine-and-opiates-during-the-war

But there are others who have used their considerable skill in making persuasive speeches to convince others to do evil. Nazi leader Adolf Hitler compelled German people to do unspeakable things to Jews and others whom Hitler and his henchmen dubbed "inferior." Earlier in the same year that Rev. King was making his historic speech, Alabama Governor George Wallace was telling throngs of angry white men and women, "Segregation today, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever."

Reprinted from "'Segregation forever': A fiery pledge forgiven, but not forgotten" (2013, January 10). Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/2013/01/14/169080969/segregation-forever-a-fiery-pledge-forgiven-but-not-forgotten

Throughout history, there are countless examples of people using public speaking to advance issues both good and evil because it is a powerful vehicle for change. The right speaker with the right speech at the right time can have lasting effects, only we rarely if ever know it at the time. Think of Lincoln, sketching out his Gettysburg speech on the back of an envelope, writing, "The world will little know nor long remember what we say here" - spoken over 157 years ago. We must never forget the power of a powerful speech. With some practice and perhaps a bit of luck, we too can make powerful speeches for good.

Reprinted from "Now cherished, Bill of Rights spent a century in obscurity" (2019, December 12). Retrieved from https://www.uscourts.gov/news/2019/12/12/now-cherished-bill-rights-spent-century-obscurity

Something that we take for granted is freedom of speech. But in other parts of the world, even today, free speech is a thing only dreamed about. Russia and China are two examples of nations that have a reputation for intolerance of free speech. It is inherently unsafe to speak too freely in opposition to government's views on pretty much anything. In America, our First Amendment provides those in this country, citizens or not, with the privilege of speaking openly. In the 2020 presidential election, there was a lot of information that many people considered "fake news" either deliberately or inadvertently shared. We saw President Trump and millions of his followers claim he was illegally defeated.

Now, Trump has been re-elected and it has resulted in further statements that are certainly troubling to some of us. Much that has been printed and said has been disturbing to many people but the First Amendment declares that we allow all voices to speak. It's not a small distinction. A great concern now is whether those freedoms to speak as we choose might be affected by a new administration seemingly bent on exacting some punishment on those who have opposed Trump's views.

As you have undoubtedly heard before, freedom, such as freedom of speech, ain't free. Many have fought and died in defense of our freedoms, so we must not take them for granted or allow others to try and diminish them.

Media embedded February 14, 2021

KSeago (2010, April 2). Barbara Jordan on impeachment, July 25, 1974 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/CDcYiyF5eLc

While we are talking about the Constitution, it might be a good time to illustrate another example of great public speaking. In the textbook and in my first video just ahead, you'll find an image of Barbara Jordan, one of the most influential women in America in the 1970's. In 1966, Jordan became the first black woman ever elected to the Texas state legislature, and in 1972 the first black woman from the South elected to the House of Representatives. While still in her first term in Congress, Jordan sat on the House Judiciary Committee in 1974 when articles of impeachment were considered for then-President Richard Nixon. Watch the video above of an excerpt from Jordan's comments on the first day of impeachment hearings. Her eloquence and knowledge of the law likely aided Jordan in making what she was sure to have known were historic circumstances.

Reprinted from "five ways to reduce your public speaking anxiety", by Taylor, J. (2013, November 7). Retrieved from https://alltop.com/viral/five-ways-to-reduce-your-public-speaking-anxiety

Meanwhile, back to that fear of speaking in public - still got it, right? There are at least two ways to look at public speaking differently that can perhaps reduce our over-anxiety. The first is our perception of what "public" means. The truth is that the exact meaning of the word can vary pretty dramatically. The second is what it is that causes us to have speech anxiety. This one is a bit more complex but still within our abilities to control. I'll go over these two reasons along with a discussion of both the power of speech and freedom of speech in my first short video. You can follow along using the attached presentation slides.

Building Confidence in the Craft Part 1
Media embedded February 14, 2021

Dunagan, J. (2020, December 31). CRS 325 week 1 video 1: Building confidence in the craft part 1 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/bYMQjBA0iF8

Reprinted from "How to sound conversational", by Marshall, L.B. (2011, July 16). Retrieved from https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/business-career/public-speaking/how-to-sound-conversational

When we think about public speaking, we are moving away from a situation where an expert speaker addresses an inexpert audience and more toward two specific models, known as the conversation model and the civic model. What's common to both models is that an interaction between speaker and audience is assumed. With a conversation model, speaker and audience are engaged in an interactive dialogue. Think of our class as a conversation model. We interact (at least hopefully!) and the role of speaker and audience will not be a static one. There will be many times where students will be the speaker. And to be honest, any kind of interaction that numbers three or more can take on qualities of the conversation model.

Reprinted from "Mifflin County School district bans all clothing, masks containing political speech or symbols", by Schweigert, K. (2020, October 2). Retrieved from https://www.fox43.com/article/news/local/mifflin-county/mifflin-county-school-district-bans-all-clothing-masks-containing-political-speech-or-symbols/521-e8cbdabf-15e9-4177-8884-68115eb0c8c2

With the civic model, a dialogue is going on as well but it often extends beyond the boundaries of a particular occasion or event. Political speeches can definitely take on this model, particularly if we consider social media to be an extension of the audience's ability to create dialogue. Just like our earlier discussion of influential speakers, these models produce both good and bad outcomes. But unlike that earlier discussion, good and bad can be relative to our own point of view.

When you watch the video below of former president Barack Obama, keep this in mind. At the time, he was a charismatic young state legislator who nonetheless lost a primary election for the House of Representatives in 2000 by a wide margin. When Obama later decided to run for the US Senate, Democratic party leaders invited him to speak at the 2004 convention in support of the party's nominee for president, Massachusetts Senator John Kerry. Party leaders saw Obama as a rising star and hoped to leverage his charisma for an uncharismatic Kerry. Incumbent George W. Bush won a narrow but decisive victory over Kerry, but Obama's speech was a success. That speech turned out to be America's first look at our next president. This video contains key excerpts from that speech with some expert analysis that helps us understand what Obama did with this example of civic model public speaking.

Media embedded February 14, 2021

THINKR (2012, August 30). The speech that made Barack Obama president [video file]. YouTube. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/OFPwDe22CoY

This speech, as well as those you may have watched earlier by Martin Luther King and others, might inspire us to the greatness achieved by these speakers. Or we could just aspire to be able to stand in front of others without being overcome by a historic case of "flop-sweat," the kind of excessive perspiration that can be brought on by nerves. This clip from the 1987 movie "Broadcast News" is probably every public speaker's worst nightmare. Watch as the great comic actor Albert Brooks tries to prove he's capable of anchoring a network newscast.

Media embedded February 14, 2021

Movieclips (2015, June 12). Broadcast News movie clip: Aaron struggles on air [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/A5xTu6AMxq4

Now we know about the worst that can happen, we can focus more on how to develop our "craft" as a public speaker. Here are some good tips:

- Seek out those speakers who are worthy of being role models and pay attention to what they say and do. Don't copy their style but rather try and adapt their methods and practices in speaking.
- The one thing all speakers have in common is an audience for their speeches. No audience, no speech. But every audience is different. Each speech we make is given to a particular group of people who will be different even if they are the identical people we gave a speech to before. We must always think about the audience who will hear this particular speech in order to make sure it is the message this audience wants to hear.
- There's a famous saying about a young musician who is lost in New York City and asks someone, "How do I get to Carnegie Hall?" The person answers, "Practice, practice, practice." The surest way to overcome our fear of public speaking and for us to be able to give the speech we need to give is to plan and prepare what we will say and how we will say it. The feeling of knowing what we will say when the time comes to say it is both calming and empowering.

In my second short video, I'll touch on those public speaking models and provide some focus for what we will try to do together in this class and how to create a good strategy for a good speech. You can follow along using the attached presentation slides.

Building Confidence in the Craft Part 2
Media embedded February 14, 2021

Dunagan, J. (2020, December 31). CRS 325 week 2 video 2: Building confidence in the craft part 2 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/rTn5-FM-1FA

In Part II, we'll examine the importance of listening in public speaking for both the audience and the speaker. We'll also consider how ethics plays a role in listening and responding to others.

Be sure to complete the LearningCurve quiz for textbook Chapter 1 (You may need to log into Blackboard to complete this quiz).

PART II - THE ETHICS OF GOOD LISTENING

What is happening when we speak and when we listen? Without diving into communication theory here, it is a process of sending and receiving messages that continue in an effort to achieve a shared meaning between sender and receiver. So it should come as no surprise that the nature of the way we send and receive messages is essential to being a good public speaker. But doesn't the nature of public speaking differ from the way we typically communicate with one another? Not really. Whatever communication situation we are in, listening will always the most important activity.

Reprinted from "Listen up: 3 ways to improve your listening skills in the business world", by Morris, T. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.certusrecruitment.com/blog/2020/02/listen-up-3-ways-to-improve-your-listening-skills-in-the-business-world

There is a "call and response" sequence in communication that is so common that we hardly recognize that it is happening.

- One person sees someone they know and speaks their name. That person hears their name and perhaps stops and turns or maybe just stops and smiles - or frowns. A response?
- A teacher poses a question or initiates a discussion and asks someone to speak up. There's silence but there's some fidgeting going on. A response? Then the teacher calls on a particular student. There's still silence but that student's expression has changed and there are body movements going on. A response?

The most obvious "call and response" situations involve concerts, where a singer will get the audience to participate in a song. This video is another excellent example of a "call and response" scenario. Unfortunately, I can no longer embed this video, so please watch it from YouTube.

This call and response process occurs everywhere in communication and certainly between a speaker and their audience, and what's also common is that most of the time, we respond to these calls without thinking about it. It's an impulse we act on without thinking. This forms the basis for why speakers have the ability to affect their audience in some way through a "call" to react either in that moment or perhaps at some point in the future. And while we may react to this call without thinking, we definitely didn't react to it without listening. So to better understand our audience, we must be able to better understand listening.

Reprinted from "Eight ways to improve your listening skills", by Reynolds, T. (2018, May 28). Retrieved from https://uptownstudios.net/8-ways-to-improve-your-listening-skills/

There certainly are at least eight ways to be a better listener, but here we will try and focus on a few key concepts, which we will get into shortly. When we practice active listening, we are in a process of making meaning from the messages we receive from others - in this case, our audience. It is a surprisingly complex process that we use to understand what has been communicated to us. But this effort is really the first of what can be many steps in order to achieve our desired outcome - a shared meaning between you and your audience.

Reprinted from "How is current noise reduced?" (n.d.). Retrieved from https://landing.coolermaster.com/faq/how-is-current-noise-reduced/

The goal of listening is to make sure that the messages we receive, whether verbal or nonverbal, get through. Noise is the primary barrier to listening, but noise is as generic-sounding a term as listening. Noise comes in all forms, auditory and otherwise, and it's important for us as good listeners to identify when noise is occurring, what kind of noise we are experiencing, and what type of communication cue that noise may be obscuring. In my next short video, I'll go over the kinds of noise we can experience, where they originate, and what we can do about them. I'll also touch on what makes a good active listener. You can follow along using the attached presentation slides.

Listening and the Ethics of Speech Part 1
Media embedded February 14, 2021

Dunagan, J. (2020, December 31). CRS 325 week 2 video 3: Listening and the ethics of speech part 1 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/6ViMilO3yuc

Reprinted from "Hearing (does not equal) listening", by Binnendyk, F. (2019). Retrieved from https://www.binnendyk.com/hearing-vs.-listening.html

Now that we've established the importance of listening, it's equally important to realize that listening and hearing are NOT the same things. The words may seem like they are the same, but they are not. Hearing is a physiological process where sounds are picked up by the ears and translated into impulses that our brains then act on - or don't act on. When we hear, we simply take in sound and process it in a rudimentary way in order for our cognitive system to decide if the sound matters to us or not. That's all. Listening requires us to do much more than just hear, but we must do that too.

If you think of the "call and respond" scenario we discussed earlier, we expect a response to whatever we call. By listening, we are actually using our eyes as well as our ears to pick up various verbal and nonverbal signals that are commonly called communication cues. These cues can be words, other sounds that are made, gestures, movements, eye contact - or perhaps the absence of one or more of these cues. Let's see if we work our way through the listening process step by step - something that typically takes us mere milliseconds to complete:

- Focus - We first filter out all verbal/nonverbal cues that we determine are not important to us ("noise") in order to find the one or ones we deem of importance.
- Attend - We shift our interest to that cue or cues we filtered out; we "attend" to these cues in order for higher-order cognitive functions to take place.
- Comprehend - This may also occur during the "focus" or "attend" phases, where we become aware of what a particular communication cue is - a word, a phrase, a sentence, a gesture, or a movement, for example.
- Interpret - This is where our cognitive powers take over, digesting the cue or cues to determine what their meaning is to us. This is the most important step in the listening process because meaning is always determined by the person receiving the message. Once again, this is why listening is everything.
- Evaluate - Once we understand the meaning of what was communicated, we decide how we feel about it. Do we like it? Dislike it? Are we noncommittal? Will we wait to decide?
- Respond - we formulate a response based on our interpretation and evaluation of the communication cues we observe. This response may be verbal, both verbal and nonverbal, or just nonverbal.

In my next short video, I'll touch on some other ways to think about listening. You can follow along using the attached presentation slides.

Listening and the Ethics of Speech Part 2
Media embedded February 14, 2021

Dunagan, J. (2020, December 31). CRS 325 week 2 video 4: Listening and the ethics of speech part 2 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/aQ9UB4gVcsM

Reprinted from "Important active listening skills and techniques", by Doyle, A. (2020, November 24). Retrieved from https://www.thebalancecareers.com/active-listening-skills-with-examples-2059684

We now know that listening is a much more complex skill than hearing and that being aware of all the steps of listening will help us to better know what our audience may be thinking about us when we are speaking to them. So what are they thinking? We want to believe they are hanging on our every word but how will we know if they aren't? Noise, as we discussed earlier, might be a reason but there may be others. How will we know that our audience might have "checked out?" Active listening can help.

Active listening takes listening even further by making us a more embedded participant in the communication process. This video by Alex Lyon deals with active listening from a more interpersonal perspective but there are still some good tips we can take from his video.

Media embedded February 14, 2021

Communication Coach Alex Lyon (2020, June 16). Active listening skills [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/7wUCyjiyXdg

These tips from Alex ought to be able to help you to be a better listener in interactions with others, including your relationships. But as a speaker, these tips will be most useful to you in knowing what to look for in your audience. By observing your audience's communication cues, you should be able to tell how many are really paying attention, how many may be pretending to pay attention, and how many have "tuned out." There may not be much you can do about it in the beginning when you are sticking to a rehearsed speech, but these cues may tell you to establish better eye contact or speak more clearly and with more confidence. In my next video, I'll talk about some of the reasons our audiences aren't listening and ways to use active listening skills to help us understand why. You can follow along using the attached presentation slides.

Listening and the Ethics of Speech Part 3
Media embedded February 14, 2021

Dunagan, J. (2020, December 31). CRS 325 week 2 video 5: Listening and the ethics of speech part 3 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/U5Olto2VuHE

​ Reprinted from "Response-ability: The difference between mediocrity and success" (2018, April 2). Retrieved from https://www.transformingadjustments.com/success/2015/2/8/take-responsibility

Stephen Covey is one of my favorite business and communication authors. In 1989, Covey wrote "The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, " and has sold over 40 million copies of the book and about 1.5 million audiobooks. According to Wikipedia (2020), Wikipedia claims that the book remains one of the best-selling nonfiction business books in history. (While I don't consider Wikipedia as a reliable source for academic writing, I find their information highly accurate nearly all the time). It is an excellent reference for anyone considering a leadership role or becoming a better communicator.

The quote from Covey about response-ability is significant because it helps define a distinction regarding this presentation of the word. We all probably have a good definition of responsibility, which is generally understood to mean our duty to accomplish or complete some task. But with the hyphen, we see that it changes the meaning to "a skill or talent for reacting in a meaningful way to a situation." In Covey's quote, "ability" is capitalized, but I think the key word in the quote is "choose." The way we respond to a speaker or to an audience is in fact our responsibility to others, which is another way to describe ethics. More on this in a bit.

Reprinted from "10 ways great speakers capture people's attention", by Wyeth, S. (2014, March 5). Retrieved from https://www.inc.com/sims-wyeth/how-to-capture-and-hold-audience-attention.html

When we decide to become a speaker, we take on a responsibility to the audience to which we speak. The audience also takes on responsibility as well. As a speaker, we must provide the audience with content that they are interested in and motivated to hear. In return, the audience must give the speaker the opportunity to provide that content by being attentive and focused on the speaker and the speech. This unspoken pact is probably the only way public speaking can ever happen. Should we as speakers expect that our audiences will act like the one in the above image? Of course. Just be sure to give that audience a speech that allows them to act that way. This is another aspect of applying ethics as accountability.

Reprinted from "Philosophical tactics for creating viral content", by Kozie, K. (2016, July 20). Retrieved from https://lseo.com/philosophical-tactics-for-creating-viral-content-ethos-pathos-logos/

If we are discussing communication, we are probably also discussing rhetoric (hence Communication and Rhetorical Studies). Rhetoric is a fancy way of describing persuasive speech, which you will find exists in some form in nearly every kind of interaction. In our text (Gunn, 2018), Greek philosopher Aristotle broke down rhetoric into three equally important elements:

- Logos - The logic used in any persuasive speech as evidence
- Pathos - The emotional and creative way the persuasive speech is delivered
- Ethos - The credibility and believability of the speaker

All three of these elements are certainly important but without credibility, our speech probably has no chance of being heard. Gunn(2018) also tells us the word "ethics" is derived from ethos. At this point, another video from Alex Lyon will be good because Lyon thinks ethos means a lot more.

Media embedded February 14, 2021

Communication Coach Alex Lyon (2019, February 3). What is ethos [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/61iDVn14XjU

Lyon broke down ethos into three different characteristics - competence, character, and caring or goodwill - and credited respected communication scholar and researcher James McCroskey with those terms. (On a personal note, two of my dear friends and academic mentors studied under McCroskey.) How do these three characteristics compare with the three qualities Gunn (2018) says Aristotle believed comprised ethics?

- Practical wisdom - Smart people are usually given a degree of respect from an audience but applying our wisdom will get us more respect. Understanding how to put what you know into the right context will help to know what - and what not - to say.
- Expertise - Our expertise suggests we have some special knowledge to share. When we do that, it's important to demonstrate that expertise by the proper way of sharing what we know. Let's face it - those facts about global warming didn't just pop into our head - we found them somewhere. Not only will a speaker be more believable when properly citing or attributing a source of information, but it also demonstrates our expertise in actually knowing about this. For those of us who labor in academics, properly citing sources is a practiced way that will truly help cement credibility with our audience.
- Goodwill - All of our wisdom and expertise and our demonstration of them both will be of little value unless we treat our audience with respect. Much of that will come from the way we share what we know and the context into which it is placed, being mindful of our audience and its makeup.

McCroskey's characteristics as shared by Lyon and Aristotle's characteristics as shared by Gunn seem more alike than different. It would be wise to consider where they differ and where they intersect. In my final video, I'll cover the ethics of speaking and listening. You can follow along using the attached presentation slides.

Listening and the Ethics of Speech Part 4
Media embedded February 14, 2021

Dunagan, J. (2020, December 31). CRS 325 week 2 video 6: Listening and the ethics of speech part 4 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/cP2c5OCZaFY

Before you move on to Week 3, there are some activities you should consider completing.

- Complete the LearningCurve quizzes for textbook Chapter 2 (You may need to log into Blackboard to complete this quiz)
- You should complete another community update. You are expected to complete 9 out of a possible 12 community updates during the course, so completing this one means you have one less to do!

Community update - Choose one of the videos from this update (not lecture videos!) and include it in your update. Explain why you chose the video and what its significance is to you as a public speaker. Compare and/or contrast that video with the one you created in Flipgrid, not in terms of quality but of the message and its intent.

Your community update should be at least 200 words long and have at least 1 image and 1 embedded video or other media included. Be sure to cite any sources you use to create this update. Also, you should comment on at least 2 other students' updates.

Comment on Week 2 - Think about the three elements of rhetoric - ethos (credibility), pathos (emotion), and logos (logic). Putting aside anything you've read so far about which is most important, provide your own insight into which of these three elements you think are most significant to you as a public speaker. Provide an example or two to help illustrate your point.

Write a comment of at least 50 words. In addition, you can comment on other students' comments.

References

Abrahams, M. (2019, January 15). Make public speaking your super power in the new year: Tips for managing speaking anxiety. No Freaking Speaking. Retrieved from https://www.nofreakingspeaking.com/make-public-speaking-your-super-power-in-the-new-year-tips-for-managing-speaking-anxiety/

Author says Hitler was 'blitzed' on cocaine and opiates during the war (2017, March 7). NPR. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2017/03/07/518986612/author-says-hitler-was-blitzed-on-cocaine-and-opiates-during-the-war

Binnendyk, F. (2019). Hearing (does not equal) listening. Executive Coaching by Frank. Retrieved from https://www.binnendyk.com/hearing-vs.-listening.html

Black, R. (2020). Glossophobia (fear of public speaking): Are you glossophobic? Psycom. Retrieved from https://www.psycom.net/glossophobia-fear-of-public-speaking

Communication Coach Alex Lyon (2020, June 16). Active listening skills [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/7wUCyjiyXdg

Communication Coach Alex Lyon (2019, February 3). What is ethos [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/61iDVn14XjU

Cover Images (2020, September 3). Here's why this amazing female drill sergeant won call and response popularity poll [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/QS6JmqRUkG4

Doyle, A. (2020, November 24). Important active listening skills and techniques. The Balance Careers. Retrieved from https://www.thebalancecareers.com/active-listening-skills-with-examples-2059684

Dunagan, J. (2020, December 31). CRS 325 week 1 video 1: Building confidence in the craft part 1 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/bYMQjBA0iF8

Dunagan, J. (2020, December 31). CRS 325 week 2 video 2: Building confidence in the craft part 2 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/rTn5-FM-1FA

Dunagan, J. (2020, December 31). CRS 325 week 2 video 3: Listening and the ethics of speech part 1 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/6ViMilO3yuc

Dunagan, J. (2020, December 31). CRS 325 week 2 video 4: Listening and the ethics of speech part 2 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/aQ9UB4gVcsM

Dunagan, J. (2020, December 31). CRS 325 week 2 video 5: Listening and the ethics of speech part 3 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/U5Olto2VuHE

Dunagan, J. (2020, December 31). CRS 325 week 2 video 6: Listening and the ethics of speech part 4 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/cP2c5OCZaFY

Gunn, J. (2018). Speech craft. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's

How is current noise reduced (n.d.). Retrieved from https://landing.coolermaster.com/faq/how-is-current-noise-reduced/

How to end public speaking anxiety (n.d.). Women's Golf Journal. Retrieved from https://womensgolfjournal.com/health/career-advice-public-speaking-101/

Kozie, K. (2016, July 20). Philosophical tactics for creating viral content. LSEO. Retrieved from https://lseo.com/philosophical-tactics-for-creating-viral-content-ethos-pathos-logos/

KSeago (2010, April 2). Barbara Jordan on impeachment, July 25, 1974 [video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/CDcYiyF5eLc

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- I would have to think that ethos would be the most significant element when it comes to my public speaking would have to be logos. I think for the situations I have experience in public speaking it comes across as reliable when backed up with information. I would say also that it wouldn’t be ethos for me personally because I am still young and don’t have the ethos that would make what I am presenting more reliable because of it as well not pathos because in my past I think logic drives more engagement than emotion.

  - Kasey Combs
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- I think Ethos is the most important out of the three; it establishes credibility to the audience, making them pay more attention. I remember watching some of the old debates between Joe Biden and Trump, and the latest one showed that Joe Biden's ethos was crumbling because of his age, and how it showed during the debate, which Trump hammered home. This was changed with Kamala Harris, how she showed more ethos and connected to many, seeing that she was young and bright and was the vice president, so she would know what the US needs.

  - Lucas Armando
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- I think Ethos is the most important out of the three; it establishes credibility to the audience, making them pay more attention. I remember watching some of the old debates between Joe Biden and Trump, and the latest one showed that Joe Biden's ethos was crumbling because of his age, and how it showed during the debate, which Trump hammered home. This was changed with Kamala Harris, how she showed more ethos and connected to many, seeing that she was young and bright and was the vice president, so she would know what the US needs.

  - Lucas Armando
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- I personably believe that ethos is the most important of the 3. It is important to build that trust. I was listening to a comedian I like talk recently about how important trust is when making jokes, if a person does not believe that what you are saying is a joke, or don't believe that you are funny, then you will never be able to get a laugh out of them. Credibility is important in that.

  - Peter Pavuk
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- I personably believe that ethos is the most important of the 3. It is important to build that trust. I was listening to a comedian I like talk recently about how important trust is when making jokes, if a person does not believe that what you are saying is a joke, or don't believe that you are funny, then you will never be able to get a laugh out of them. Credibility is important in that.

  - Peter Pavuk
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- I personably believe that ethos is the most important of the 3. It is important to build that trust. I was listening to a comedian I like talk recently about how important trust is when making jokes, if a person does not believe that what you are saying is a joke, or don't believe that you are funny, then you will never be able to get a laugh out of them. Credibility is important in that.

  - Peter Pavuk
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- For me, as a speaker, ethos is the most crucial factor. If people don't respect or believe you as a speaker, then nothing you say will be taken seriously. As a speaker, one of the most crucial qualities you may possess is credibility. Take Hitler as an example. He was extremely credible, which contributed to his success. Because he was credible, people actually believed him. It shows the power of ethos for every speaker.

  - Vito Shevchenko
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- I think ethos is the best way to persuade someone. When people trust you and believe you’re reliable, they are more likely to listen to you. Trust is something that takes time to build, but once you have it, it's useful in many areas of life. Whether it’s in school, at work, or with friends and family, being the type of person, others can count on will take you far. If people believe in you, they’ll support you, give you more chances, and want to work with you. That’s the main reason why I think building trust through ethos is more important than just using facts (logos) or emotions (pathos).

  - Malachi Coleman
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- I think ethos is the best way to persuade someone. When people trust you and believe you’re reliable, they are more likely to listen to you. Trust is something that takes time to build, but once you have it, it's useful in many areas of life. Whether it’s in school, at work, or with friends and family, being the type of person, others can count on will take you far. If people believe in you, they’ll support you, give you more chances, and want to work with you. That’s the main reason why I think building trust through ethos is more important than just using facts (logos) or emotions (pathos).

  - Malachi Coleman
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- I believe that ethos or being someone that is creditable is the most important aspect of the three rhetorical appeals. Emotions sway people and convince them to think one way or another, but being someone who is creditable decides weather if someone will be listens too or if the things they say will be taken serious. This reminds me of the classic tale of the boy who cried wolf. When there really was an emergency no one listened as he was not creditable as he had been caught lying. I see ethos as something thats very important I resonate most with pathos. I think that many of the most important speeches are powerful because if a speakers emotions as well as passion for what they are talking about. When someone reveals their true feelings and emotions about something and is vulnerable it allows the audience to connect on a new level. Emotions are something that are difficult to control, but when done properly it shapes a speech for the better.

  - Dashiel Rabhan
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